Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below (Broughton et al., 1994; Cartwright, 2004; Mahowald, Schenck, & Cramer Bornemann, 2005; Pressman, 2007). As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). . (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini, Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011). A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. Moreover, these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases (Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007). Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help sufferers of insomnia. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Given the average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25 years of our lives sleeping. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. Feeling tired. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. In the brain, the hypothalamus, which lies above the pituitary gland, is a main center of homeostasis. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. Generally, people use caffeine to maintain increased levels of alertness and arousal. Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. A) managed care 1. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. Not surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several different approaches. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were effectively treated. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Watch this, Sleep, which we all experience, is a quiet and mysterious pause in our daily lives. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist (Cropley, Theadom, Pravettoni, & Webb, 2008; Levitt, Shaw, Wong, & Kaczorowski, 2007; Smedslund, Fisher, Boles, & Lichtenstein, 2004). 23. The lifespan perspective in health psychology reveals that adolescents One of the shortcomings with the health belief model is Risk factors for a health problem People whose personalities include high levels of _____ seem to be "disease" Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences, there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with the external environment. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. Abnormal Motor Behavior. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. If someone stays awake for 48 consecutive hours, they could start to hallucinate. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. It may feel like alcohol helps you sleep, but it actually disrupts REM sleep and leads to frequent awakenings. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Stick to a sleep schedule, even on the weekends. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. Low doses increase relaxation, decrease inhibitions. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. a. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. d. both b and c. 2. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. MDMA (3.4-methelynedioxy-methamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy or Molly) is a mild stimulant with perception-altering effects. d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). Think meditation might help? Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Causes. Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. For example, repeated use can lead to overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin). We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping.
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