scottish vs irish facial features

Hammond, P., and Suttie, M. (2012). Most Scottish people have brown hair, Nat. Sci. Res. Differences between direct (anthropometric) and indirect (cephalometric) measurements of the skull. Genetic interactions or epistasis may also explain the low levels of variance recorded. Genetics of cleft lip and palate: syndromic genes contribute to the incidence of non-syndromic clefts. Eur. Sci. There is no one answer to this question as everyone has their own unique facial features. (2017). Investigating the shared genetics of non-syndromic cleft lip/palate and facial morphology. The molecular hallmarks of epigenetic control. In brief: Gaelic in Scottish is pronounced as Gah-Lick whereas it is pronounce as Gai-Lick in Irish. Eur. J. Forensic Sci. (2013). (2013). Genet. Int. SR, ES, SL, and LH wrote the section Craniofacial Shape Gene Discovery. Roosenboom, J., Hens, G., Mattern, B. C., Shriver, M. D., and Claes, P. (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2007.01.037, Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Incrapera, A., English, J., and Xia, J. J. Surg. The face develops very early in gestation and facial development is closely related to the cranial neural crest cells. Am. et al., 2015) and Mendelian randomization can provide information on the genetic overlap of facial phenotypes with other genetic traits and the possibility to causally assess the association of risk factors with face development (Smith and Ebrahim, 2003). 6. Embryonic features that contribute to facial development. 227, 474486. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.20249, Miller, S. F., Weinberg, S. M., Nidey, N. L., Defay, D. K., Marazita, M. L., Wehby, G. L., et al. doi: 10.1006/jhev.2000.0403, Jablonski, N. G., and Chaplin, G. (2010). Nat. Eur. (2012). 268, 3944. doi: 10.1002/humu.22054, Heike, C. L., Upson, K., Stuhaug, E., and Weinberg, S. M. (2010). 45, 414419. Factors influencing facial shape, in Evidenced-Based Orthodontics. This is where the Scottish and Irish kilts differ the most, as the tartan in which the kilts are made have very different origins and meanings. (2007). A., Couper, D., Miller, M. B., et al. Substantial heritability estimates for facial attractiveness and sexual dimorphism (0.500.70 and 0.400.50), respectively (Mitchem et al., 2014), further demonstrate the strong genetic influences on facial phenotypes. Craniofacial Res. It is important to note that the strong association between facial morphology and ancestry means that any correlations may be attributable to fine-scale population substructure. J. Defining facial shape can be undertaken in different ways but it is important to appreciate that there will be associations with not only with other facial features but also body phenotypes and medical conditions. Am. PLoS One 6:e14821. Much confusion has arisen from the inaccurate use of the terms " Celt " and " Celtic." doi: 10.1093/ejo/18.6.549, Van Otterloo, E., Williams, T., and Artinger, K. B. Strong levels of phenotypic and genotypic spousal assortment have been previously demonstrated for height (Robinson et al., 2017) and similar methods could be applied using facial phenotypes to explore the influences of facial morphology on mate choice. Perception of health from facial cues. 23, 764773. The implication that the Irish, English, Scottish and Welsh have a great deal in common with each other, at least from the geneticists point of view, seems likely to 9:462. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00462. 1. These transcriptional factors may be limited to detail the precise facial shape or can be quickly activated in rapid periods of growth and development. Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A. I., Knox, J., Chestnutt, I., Hartles, F., et al. Genet. Understanding the face will explain why we look the way we do a range of normality and abnormality that will be useful in healthcare applications and forensic science. doi: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.09.001, Mellion, Z. J., Behrents, R. G., and Johnston, L. E. Jr. (2013). From birth to adulthood there are significant body and facial changes. (1996). J. Phys. J. Neuroradiol. Multiethnic GWAS reveals polygenic architecture of earlobe attachment. Phenotype-specific enrichment of Mendelian disorder genes near GWAS regions across 62 complex traits. Biol. Mutat. So far, all GWAS studies have studied the static face but capturing the face during simple facial actions in a population (dynamic movement with or without speech) will enable the exploration of combined neurological and morphological features by assessing both speed and range of movement. Maternal active smoking and risk of oral clefts: a meta-analysis. 47, 928937. Dentofacial Orthop. 3. 12:e1006174. There are over 25,000 registered Scottish tartans. Differences in horizontal, neoclassical facial canons in Chinese (Han) and North American Caucasian populations. BMJ Open 5:e009027. A novel strategy for forensic age prediction by DNA methylation and support vector regression model. The prediction of skin color from DNA has also been reported (Chaitanya et al., 2018) and DNA methylation has been demonstrated as a useful predictor of age. (2010). (2017). Proc. - Understanding the etiology of craniofacial anomalies; e.g., unaffected family members of individuals with non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (nsCL/P) have been shown to differ in terms of normal-range facial variation to the general population suggesting an etiological link between facial morphology and nsCL/P. Robinson, M. R., Kleinman, A., Graff, M., Vinkhuyzen, A. Dentofacial Orthop. Forensic DNA Phenotyping: predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(16)30054-7, Al Ali, A., Richmond, S., Popat, H., Playle, R., Pickles, T., Zhurov, A. I., et al. (2018). U.S.A. 115, E676E685. The usual brown and red hair is now rather a stereotype. (2016). Orthod. The facial processes fuse at different times; maxillary 6 weeks, upper lip 8 weeks and palate 12 weeks (ORahilly, 1972; Danescu et al., 2015). doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A3415, Som, P. M., and Naidich, T. P. (2014). Proc. J. Orthod. (2016). 36, 506511. The role of sonic hedgehog in normal and abnormal craniofacial morphogenesis. Given that their DNA is so close that as of October 2013 it was not yet determined which of Celt or Saxon the House of Oldenburg (Mountbatten) is, Oral Radiol. 24, 4351. (2016). Forensic Sci. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006149, Sham, P. C., and Purcell, S. M. (2014). It is important to identify early life exposures (particularly conception to birth) that may influence later life health outcomes. Theres nothing the Irish love more than the craic. doi: 10.1111/joa.12365, Dawei, W., Guozheng, Q., Mingli, Z., and Farkas, L. G. (1997). doi: 10.1016/j.bjps.2014.01.003, Uslu, V. V., Petretich, M., Ruf, S., Langenfeld, K., Fonseca, N. A., Marioni, J.C., et al. Hum. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.31760. Am. Orbicularis oris muscle defects as an expanded phenotypic feature in nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate. Use of 3-dimensional surface acquisition to study facial morphology in 5 populations. Over the last 6 years there has been significant progress with 9 published GWAS which have identified over 50 loci associated with facial traits (Liu et al., 2012; Paternoster et al., 2012; Adhikari et al., 2016; Cole et al., 2016; Shaffer et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2017; Cha et al., 2018; Claes et al., 2018; Crouch et al., 2018). 36, 373380. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 674685. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2010.05.001, Hennessy, R. J., Lane, A., Kinsella, A., Larkin, C., OCallaghan, E., and Waddington, J. L. (2004). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1327, Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Burt, D. M., and Perrett, D. I. 50, 652656. (2011). BMJ Open. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00190, Freund, M. K., Burch, K., Shi, H., Mancuso, N., Kichaev, G., Garske, K. M., et al. Another mechanism via which environmental influences can affect facial traits is natural selection, where certain facial traits may have beneficial effects on reproductive fitness. Tartan. The FaceBase consortium: a comprehensive program to facilitate craniofacial research. 24, 286292. bioRxiv. J. Hum. (2011). Tobi, E. W., Slieker, R. C., Luijk, R., Dekkers, K. F., Stein, A. D., Xu, K. M., et al. For example, for our 2019 ethnicity estimates we knew that Scottish people typically got a lot of both Ireland & Scotland and England, Wales & Northwestern Europe in their results often almost a 50/50 split. 67, 489497. AJNR Am. Differences in relative size, shape and spatial arrangement (vertical, horizontal and depth) between the various facial features (e.g., eyes, nose, lips etc.) In addition, the individual facial traits have yielded impressive levels of significance using a relatively small number of subjects (Evans, 2018). Robot 3, 97110. It only takes an hour to cross the Irish Sea from Scotland - but sometimes it can feel like you're on the other side of the world. Acad. PLoS One 9:e93442. Distinct DNA methylation profiles in subtypes of orofacial cleft. Oral Surg. GWAS may be underestimating and twin and family studies overestimating the levels of heritability. Prevention may be challenging (other than continually improving environmental conditions and reducing exposure to potential epigenetic factors) as facial development occurs very early in gestation during a period whereby the mother is often unaware she is pregnant. In addition, there is evidence of pleiotropy, quantitative phenotypes and Mendelian traits all influencing multiple phenotypes suggesting a large number of loci contribute additively to facial variation. Oral Med. Genet. Surg. MSc thesis, Cardiff University, Cardiff. Pediatrics 138:e20154256. (2016). Shared genetic pathways may influence both normal-range variation in facial morphology and craniofacial anomalies. The old and new face of craniofacial research: How animal models inform human craniofacial genetic and clinical data. The first thing guests are offered when entering an Irish persons home is a cup of tea. Transgenerational epigenetics and brain disorders. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2008.00428.x, Toma, A. M., Zhurov, A. I., Playle, R., Marshall, D., Rosin, P. L., and Richmond, S. (2012). (2017). (2018). The timing, vectors and duration of surges in facial growth tend to be different for males and females and between populations contributing to overall facial variation (Kau et al., 2010; Hopman et al., 2014; Richmond R.C. Similarly, it has been hypothesized that maternal smoking may influence facial morphology and be a risk factor for cleft lip and palate (Xuan et al., 2016) with DNA methylation a possible mediator (Armstrong et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2003.08.003, Hochheiser, H., Aronow, B. J., Artinger, K., Beaty, T. H., Brinkley, J. F., Chai, Y., et al. Reliability of measuring facial morphology with a 3-dimensional laser scanning system. Does sexual dimorphism in facial soft tissue depths justify sex distinction in craniofacial identification? Genet. 122, 680690. Identification of 15 loci influencing height in a Korean population. 115, 5173. Nat. 1),S126S146. 21, 548553. Dev. Int. Nature 414, 909912. Med. Down syndrome, cleft lip and/or palate, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Treacher Collins syndrome can all present with facial abnormalities and genetic loci associated with them have been studied in relation to normal facial development (Boehringer et al., 2011; Brinkley et al., 2016). Rep. 7:2441. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02721-0. *Correspondence: Stephen Richmond, r[emailprotected], The Genes and Mechanisms Underlying Normal-Range Craniofacial Variation, View all There are many published norms for different racial/population groups used to identify individuals who fall within the normal range and identify any facial dysmorphologies. Rev. Biol. Oral Pathol. Different facial measures have been applied to facial images obtained from a variety of acquisition systems (2D and 3D). (2018b). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-60964-5_59. Aesthetic. Gene association with regionalized facial features in normal populations. 22, 27352747. Palate. Nat. Hoyme, H. E., Kalberg, W. O., Elliott, A. J., Blankenship, J., Buckley, D., Marais, A. S., et al. Large-scale objective phenotyping of 3D facial morphology. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.10.021, Sidlauskas, M., Salomskiene, L., Andriuskeviciute, I., Sidlauskiene, M., Labanauskas, Z., Vasiliauskas, A., et al. (2017). You also have the ginger/red hair colour that is quite common on the british isles, most common in Ireland and Scotland, I believe. Facial shape and features are the result of mutations, genetic drift, recombination and natural selection. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0544.2001.040303.x, Carson, E. A. Epigenetics focuses on the functional components of the genes and gene activities. Hu, N., Strobl-Mazzulla, P. H., and Bronner, M. E. (2014). [Epub ahead of print]. PLoS Genet. 98, 680696. The disruption of neuro-facial developmental and maturational processes can lead to widespread and long-lasting abnormalities in central nervous system structure and functions and some of these disturbances will also be accompanied with subtle differences in facial features (Hennessy et al., 2010). Different genetic models, genotyping and imputation techniques have been employed and the between-study heterogeneity should be considered. 47, 291295. Eur. The growing number of GWAS datasets has allowed exploration of the shared genetic influences on different phenotypes (Bulik-Sullivan B. et al., 2015; Pickrell et al., 2016). A quantitative genetic study of cephalometric variables in twins. Expanding the cleft phenotype: the dental characteristics of unaffected parents of Australian children with non-syndromic cleft lip and palate. (2017). Epigenetic processes are particularly relevant to craniofacial phenotypes because of the general importance of epigenetic gene regulation during embryonic development (Reik, 2007) and their specific role in neural crest development (Hu et al., 2014). Orienting the causal relationship between imprecisely measured traits using GWAS summary data. Genet. For instance, the PAX3 gene is associated with eye to nasion distance, prominence of the nasion and eye width, side walls of the nose, and prominence of nose tip. Facial features can be broadly characterized in terms of the size and shape of the whole face and/or its component parts (e.g., big/small head; short/long and wide/thin face, prominent or retrusive chin). 34, 655664. Ashique, A. M., Fu, K., and Richman, J. M. (2002). J. Hum. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007081, Henderson, A. J., Holzleitner, I. J., Talamas, S. N., and Perrett, D. I. et al., 2018). What are Typical Irish Facial Features? With any change in face shape the complex processes and communications at the biological and genome levels need to be identified and explained. 12, 271281. Scientists have merged dozens of famous faces to create what they call the most beautiful faces in the world. Toma, A. M., Zhurov, A., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2008). Genet. Prediction in forensic science: a critical examination of common understandings. Dev. Ricketts, R. M. (1982). In particular, the strong effects that genetic variation can have on facial appearance are highlighted by historical portraits of the European royal family, the Habsburgs (14381740). SR and LH outlined the overall manuscript. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddu150, Crouch, D. J. M., Winney, B., Koppen, W. P., Christmas, W. J., Hutnik, K., Day, T., et al. Dis. Judging by the looks of all the peoples known to have a strong Celtic background, and according to some historical sources, Id say that Celts were However, there is a limited amount of evidence that epigenetic inheritance may carry over multiple generations (Schmidt and Kornfeld, 2016; Gluckman et al., 2007). A number of Scottish people have a wavy texture to their hair. A genome-wide association scan in admixed Latin Americans identifies loci influencing facial and scalp hair features. Updated Clinical Guidelines for Diagnosing Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Legal Med. Maternal alcohol consumption and offspring DNA methylation: findings from six general population-based birth cohorts. Predominantly genetic influences have been reported for anterior face height, relative prominence of the maxilla and mandible, width of the face/nose, nasal root shape, naso-labial angle, allometry and centroid size (Carels et al., 2001; Carson, 2006; Jelenkovic et al., 2010; Djordjevic et al., 2013a,b, 2016; Cole et al., 2017; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017). doi: 10.1111/ocr.12012, Djordjevic, J., Lawlor, D. A., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2013b). (2016). It originated in the 1500's and is always performed to traditional Irish music. II. Zaidi, A. 42, 17691782. (2016). 19, 12631269. Polygenic risk scores, LD score regression (to reduce confounding biases Bulik-Sullivan B.K. Another even smaller group of Irish people (around 1% of the population) have black hair, light or tan skin, and brown eyes. 106, 191200. usually an angry face with an open gorilla mouth. Semin. Previously published studies that have identified gene-phenotype associations which provides evidence of associations for complex facial traits which can be integrated into prediction models. (2014). B., Manyama, M., Kimwaga, E., Mathayo, J., Larson, J. R., Liberton, D. K., et al. Dyn. These were the most native Irish traditional folk dances. doi: 10.1093/ejo/cjv062, Smith, G. D., and Ebrahim, S. (2003). Int. ORahilly, R. (1972). Future work could utilize meditation techniques (Tobi et al., 2018) or Mendelian randomization (Relton and Davey Smith, 2012) to formally investigate the possibility that prenatal exposures influence orofacial cleft risk via epigenetic processes. There is evidence that nsCL/P genetic risk variants have an additive effect on philtrum width across the general population. (2018c). 115, 299320. Feeling a bit down, have a cup of tea. WebWhen autocomplete results are available use up and down arrows to review and enter to select. doi: 10.1002/rcs.141. 50, 319321. Improved facial outcome assessment using a 3D anthropometric mask. Sharman, N. (2011). Acad. (2013). Philos. Nat. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006616. (2018). doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A3414, Stanier, P., and Moore, G. E. (2004). 1), 101116. Facial morphology refers to a series of many different complex traits, each influenced by genetic and environmental factors. doi: 10.3390/ijerph10115953. R. Soc. Genet. Heavy metals and placental fetal-maternal barrier: a mini-review on the major concerns. This approach may be appropriate for unique facial characteristics but is more challenging when one or more genes are associated with the variation of facial phenotype (e.g., prominence of the nasal bridge or length of the nose, hair and eye color/tones). WebScottish vs. Irish. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118355, Paternoster, L., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Kemp, J. P., Pourcain, B. S., Timpson, N. J., et al. One or more facial landmarks can be used to generate principal components, geodesic distances, geodesic arrays, facial shells and signatures which can categorize patterns in facial features (Hammond and Suttie, 2012; Hallgrimsson et al., 2015; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017; Abbas et al., 2018). (For the sense of a primitive stone tool, see the separate article, later.) U.S.A. 111, 48324837. For the Scottish, they have Prince Charlie and the Argyle designs. Psychol. doi: 10.1038/ng.3406, Bulik-Sullivan, B. K., Loh, P. R., Finucane, H. K., Ripke, S., and Yang, J. The facial developmental component processes are listed (Table 1) and the human embryonic sequence of events can be visualized which aids understanding of the movement of the facial processes followed by their fusion (Sharman, 2011). Media 4, 1732. Armstrong, D. A., Green, B. Post-natally, facial growth tends to follow general somatic growth with periods of steady increments in size interspersed with periods of rapid growth with the peak growth occurring at puberty (Tanner et al., 1966a,b; Bhatia et al., 1979; Kau and Richmond, 2008; Richmond et al., 2009; Richmond S. et al., 2018). This has been proposed as a method to build a profile of facial features from a sample of DNA (Claes et al., 2014) but could also be used to determine previous health history or future health risks (Idemyor, 2014). C Embryo Today 84, 1629. The aim will be to continually develop and advance existing computerized tools and algorithms to solve these complex problems and this will require a multidisciplinary and internationally based team. Sci. A genetic atlas of human admixture history. However, some common Irish facial features include: a high cheekbones, a long, thin nose, and a sharp chin. doi: 10.1038/ng.2971, Van der Beek, M. C., Hoeksma, J. Many of these substances can cross the placenta (Naphthalene a volatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon related to solvent emissions is present in household products and pesticides Mirghani et al., 2015; Nicotine Wickstrm, 2007; Drugs and alcohol Lange et al., 2014). The US cancer moonshot initiative. The generated images were Res. The influence of genetic variation is also evident in non-consanguineous families, where dental and facial characteristics are common among siblings and passed on from parents to their offspring (Hughes et al., 2014). Forensic age prediction for saliva samples using methylation-sensitive high resolution melting: exploratory application for cigarette butts. The development of the face involves a coordinated complex series of embryonic events. Dixon, M. J., Marazita, M. L., Beaty, T. H., and Murray, J. C. (2011). PRDM16 is linked to the length and the prominence of the nose as well as the width of the alae, SOX9 is thought to be related to the shape of the ala and nose tip, variation in SUPT3H is thought to influence naso-labial angle and shape of the bridge of the nose, while centroid size (squared root of the squared distances of all landmarks of the face from the centroid) and allometry (relationship of size to shape) have been linked to PDE8A and SCHIP17 genes, respectively, (Cole et al., 2016). The HIrisPlex-S system for eye, hair and skin colour prediction from DNA: introduction and forensic developmental validation. DNA methylation as a mediator of the association between prenatal adversity and risk factors for metabolic disease in adulthood. The dimorphic differences appear to follow similar patterns in different ethnic groups (Farnell et al., 2017). Forensic Sci. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have investigated the association between normal facial variation and millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Recognizable features of the human face develop around the 4th week of gestation and are closely related to cranial neural crest cells (Marcucio et al., 2015). Genet. doi: 10.1016/j.oooo.2016.08.007, Zaidi, A. 101, 913924. 1:0016. The possible evolutionary advantages of facial phenotypes have been discussed extensively but anthropological hypotheses can be tested using genetic and facial phenotype data. Theyre both made up of fresh, high-quality ingredients that are combined to create hearty dishes. 281:20141639. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1639, Rachdaoui, N., and Sarkar, D. K. (2014). Hum. There were subtle differences between males and females in relation to the relative prominence of the lips, eyes, and nasal bridges including minor facial asymmetries (Toma et al., 2008, 2012; Wilson et al., 2013; Abbas et al., 2018). Int. SR and SL wrote the section Heritability. Z., Segurel, L., Tung, J. Y., and Hinds, D. A. 5, 213222. Estimating the sex-specific effects of genes on facial attractiveness and sexual dimorphism. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. JAMA Pediatr. The faces are narrow, you might say hollow. (1999). (2015). B Biol. Further detail is required on the heritability of facial features with particular attention to inherited pathways of specific facial features in homogenous populations and populations with significant admixture. Rep. 2, 957960. Science 354, 760764. For example, there is evidence that nose shape has been under historical selection in certain climates (Weiner, 1954; Zaidi et al., 2017). Indeed, a previous study demonstrated that a major risk locus for non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (nsCL/P), in a non-coding interval, is involved in the regulation of gene expression in the developing murine face (Uslu et al., 2014) while another study found some evidence that nsCL/P genetic variants may influence nsCL/P risk via changes in DNA methylation and gene expression (Howe et al., 2018b). There is evidence to suggest that the effects of some of these substances can also continue post-natally through breast milk fed to the new-born (heavy metals Caserta et al., 2013; Dioxin Rivezzi et al., 2013). Scottish English can best be summed up as being an accent that is the perfect combination of Gaelic roots, Scots phonology and an English lexicon. The Face and Age. Eur. J. Orthod. Scots also have pale complexions and blue eyes. Stability and flexibility of epigenetic gene regulation in mammalian development. 2. The teeth and faces of twins: providing insights into dentofacial development and oral health for practising oral health professionals. The shade NW10 is very pale. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006174, Cole, J. Alcohol. Sharp, G. C., Arathimos, R., Reese, S. E., Page, C. M., Felix, J., Kpers, L. K., et al. U.S.A. 107(Suppl. (2018a). (2012). There's also some more darker features in some people, like black hair and brown eyes. The use of ordinal and quantitative measures has been explored reporting good correlation with inter-alae and lower lip distances (r = 0.7) and poor association for naso-labial angle (r = 0.16) (Adhikari et al., 2016). Hum. Lond. Dentofacial Orthop. Three-dimensional surface acquisition systems for the study of facial morphology and their application to maxillofacial surgery. 159(Suppl. 21, 265269. Curr. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002910, Djordjevic, J., Zhurov, A. I., and Richmond, S. (2016). With improving knowledge of the controlling mechanisms for normal and abnormal facial development, it is logical to pursue healthcare strategies in the first instance to prevent craniofacial anomalies arising, with discussion of risks with genetic counseling, possibly future gene therapies and the follow up with minimally invasive or non-surgical, scarless procedures to correct craniofacial anomalies such as cleft lip and palate and control vertical and horizontal growth particularly of the upper and lower jaws and nose. However, large-scale population studies are needed to identify more genetic variants not only in the context of facial shape but general body development with particularly attention to puberty. (2016). It is therefore important to use causal inference techniques such as epigenetic Mendelian randomization Relton and Davey Smith, 2012) or the Steiger test (Hemani et al., 2017) to orientate the likely directions of effect between phenotypes, epigenetic modifications and gene expression. Periderm: Life-cycle and function during orofacial and epidermal development. Aesthetic. PLoS One 12:e0176566. eds G. J. Huang, R. S., K.W.L. Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation. There are many imaging systems available to capture the external facial surface topography such as photography, lasers, photogrammetry, magnetic resonance Imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT), and cone beam computerized tomography (CBCT). 396, 159168. Int. Vertical facial growth and statural growth in girls: a longitudinal comparison. Exploring the underlying genetics of craniofacial morphology through various sources of knowledge. For example, significantly more women self-report having blonde and red hair while more men as self-report as having black hair (Hysi et al., 2018). Vig (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell). hundreds of millions of sequences) as well as biomarkers for medical conditions generates massive and complex data sets. CELT, or Kelt, the generic name of an ancient people, the bulk of whom inhabited the central and western parts of Europe. Jaenisch, R., and Bird, A. J. Hum. - Highlighting what is known about shared facial traits, medical conditions and genes. Historically, craniofacial genetic research has understandably focused on identifying the causes of craniofacial anomalies and it has only been within the last 10 years, that there has been a drive to detail the biological basis of normal-range facial variation. 67, 261268. (2015). et al., 2018) with differential DNA methylation, but contrastingly there is no clear evidence for an association between prenatal alcohol exposure and DNA methylation (Sharp et al., 2018). Natl. These are interesting answers. I am not sure if I can add anything or not, but I think there are a couple of areas that should be addressed. First,

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